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July 04 Book Review:A Short History of LanguagesDate: Mon, 09 Dec 2002 01:34:44 -0500 From: Miguel.Rodriguez-Mondonedo <Miguel.Rodriguez-Mondonedohuskymail.uconn.edu> Subject: Janson (2002) Speak: A Short History of Languages
Janson, Tore (2002) Speak: A Short History of Languages. Oxford University Press, viii+290pp, hardback ISBN 0-19-829978-8, $19.95.
Miguel Rodriguez-Mondonedo, Department of Linguistics, University of Connecticut
[An announcement of this book does not yet appear in the LINGUISTList database. --Eds.]
This book is an overview of the historical development of the languages from the point of view of the social and political evolution of their speakers. Given the author's amazing capability to synthesize, thirteen small chapters are enough for such enterprise. In a very illuminating way, the author explains the connections between the birth, the expansion and the extinction of a language and the fate of the community of its speakers. Janson wants to solve the question "What is a language?" by looking into the History; as we will see, he ends up with a very limited answer. The book is addressed to a broad audience, but it presents a final section with detailed suggestions for further reading.
Firstly, I will summarize each chapter, then I will comment on some key aspect of the book.
The first chapter is dedicated to the question of the language origin. Janson presents the main assumptions about that, with no further speculation. We suppose that he assumes that a historical method cannot illuminate a pre-historical fact (after all, the chapter name is "Languages before History"). By comparing the pre-historical situation with the present Khoisan languages, the author concludes that 40,000 years ago there were more languages than now, with few speakers living in small groups. This poses the question about how only a few languages grew, displacing the others.
The second chapter deals with the large language groups. The author focuses in Indo-European and Bantu languages. The main conclusion (following a Colin Renfrew's hypothesis) is that the introduction of farming and livestock is key for the expansion of this languages; that means that it is not the war or the conquests what helps to expand Indo-European or Bantu (in the beginning, they did not have strong states or administrative apparatus), but the fact that these peoples developed farming and livestock and this cultural achievement allowed them to expand, taking lands and farms from hunters and gatherers. This caused that some languages had much more speakers that others; at some point, these large languages were fragmented becoming many smaller ones.
The third chapter is about the birth of writing. According to Janson, writing is a key element for the standardization of a language and for its ability to survive. A writing system is possible when a strong state takes care of the political and cultural life. Janson entertains the hypothesis that the necessity to collect taxes is a main motivation for the apparition of a writing system. He analyses the emergence of hieroglyphic and cuneiform writing; he also talks about logographic and syllabic writing systems, predicting that they will not be abandoned in favor of the alphabet.
The fourth chapter studies the formidable impact of Greek culture in Western tradition. The explosion of new ideas in Greece leaves a perdurable trace in the vocabulary of many Western languages. Janson states: "The Greeks partly created our way of understanding the world, and what they created lives on our language" (p. 74). What is remarkable about this language is that it maintained its prestige even after the political falling of the Greek state, mainly because of its cultural importance. This raises the question about the equality of languages; the author accepts that "all languages can fulfill all functions" (p.74) but he warns us: "Languages are like men in that not all can do everything" (p. 75).
The next chapter is about Latin and the Roman Empire. The expansion of Rome was also the expansion of Latin, displacing aboriginal languages, especially because Romans established an efficient administration in the occupied territories; in addition, Latin was closely linked to the new Christian religion, acting as international language during several centuries. This poses the question about if it is a good or bad thing that a language disappears; as Janson says: "The answer is not obvious" (p. 98), because the preference for a new language, although it is an irretrievable loss, is often the preference for a more powerful tool to communicate and to progress.
The sixth chapter explains the fragmentation of Latin in Romance languages. This is key chapter to understand Janson's conception of language, because he starts with this question: "When is something a language, and at which point does it become another language?" (p. 108) His answer is: "the decisive factor is what people think about their language" (p. 109). To illustrate his point, the author use the case of Dante, who thought that he was writing in popular Latin ("Latium vulgare"), not in Italian; according to Janson, since it was what Dante believed, it is true: there is not Italian until a clear conscience of its use arises, normally, under the pressure of the political power. The history of French language also illustrates this point, according with the author.
The seventh chapter shows the expansion of Germanic and the emergence of Modern English. As in the case of Italian or French, there is not English until a strong state claims that and it has the capability to enforce such claim, often using a well-established name and a writing system. At this point, I must point out that Janson does not ignore that there are several languages without state, name or writing system, but it seems that he has the feeling that these languages are, somehow, "weak languages", with less possibilities to survive. As in the previous cases, a prestigious Literature in English was crucial for the process of becoming conscious of being speaking a new language.
The following chapter explains the role played by the languages in the formation of Nation-States in Europe. As Janson says: "The new national languages did not just spring up spontaneously, they were deliberately created" (p. 167). Gradually, Latin is replaced as a language for science and culture in favor of the new national languages: French, English, Spanish, or German. Given the political preponderance of France, French becomes an international language for a while, competing with the other languages, however, just as the correspondent Nation-States were competing with each other. The question of what is a language becomes a political one, to the extreme that "the new languages were the creation of the masters, not of the people" (p.183)
The ninth chapter deals with the expansion of some European languages all over the world. This produced an enormous transformation in the languages spoken in the territories occupied by Europeans. The most dramatic change was the invasion of Spanish: in the 16th century, 50 million people spoke several hundred languages, now 300 million speak only Spanish in such territories. In addition to Spanish, English and Portuguese replaced native languages in America and other continents, causing the disappearing or the retreating of almost 1000 languages.
The tenth chapter is called "How languages are born -- or made". Janson analyses the birth of Pidgins and Creoles; according to him, only "a few Creoles are unquestionably languages of their own" (p. 210) because in other cases the speakers do not recognize their Creole as a new language but as "English" or "French". Janson is loyal to his criterion: "the speakers have the last word" (p. 210). As it is well known, Creoles share some grammatical properties, despite of the fact that they have very different origin; some researchers have proposed that it reflects a common Universal Grammar. Janson does not accept this idea, mainly because "those grammatical devices are not particularly frequent in other languages" (p. 213); however, he does not provide a final solution. He also discuss the case of Afrikaans, the Boers' language (asking if it is a Dutch dialect or a Creole), and the case of Norway, with two different written languages, both recognized as Norwegian by its speakers---therefore, "one language with two written norms" (p. 224), following the author's criterion. According to Janson, language has to have: (i) a name, (ii) a political base (not an absolute requirement, however), and (iii) recognition by its speakers, disregarding the fact that it has similarities with other languages.
The next chapter studies how languages disappear. The author analyses the cases of Gaelic in Scotland, some languages in Papua New Guinea (retreating because of Tok Pisin), in Botswana (where Setswana displaces other languages), etc. The expansion of school education and other services, the growth of business and communication, all of them in the dominant language, are among the reasons why languages disappear. According to the author, given the many advantages to shift from a small language to a larger one, such process will not end in the future; on the contrary, he predicts a massive extinction of languages in the next centuries.
The twelfth chapter is called "The Heyday of English". Here, the author raises the question about why English has become the second language for a vast majority of non-English speakers. It has to do with the privileged position of the United States after the Second World War (which diminished the possibilities of other European languages) and the collapse of the Soviet Union (which eliminated Russian as an option for international language). English was already widely extended by the British Empire during centuries; in the last twenty years, however, it has become the exclusive language of science, technology, and finances. It is not easy to know if such position will continue in the future.
The final chapter is dedicated to speculate about the future of languages. Under the assumption that no great calamity will happen, Janson predicts for the next 200 years that two or three thousand languages will disappears, and that English will diminished its importance, although it will be necessary to learn English since most of current English cultural production is not translated to another language. In 2000 years, he predicts that no language will be very close to its current form, because they will undergo strong changes, although they will include many elements from the present languages; if the number of contacts among people increased in the right proportion, it is not impossible that all human beings will speak the same language. In two millions years, it is very likely that the human language will disappear; it can happen because the human species becomes extinct or because it evolves to another species with some more advanced capability or just silent.
Now I will make some comments. This is a book written to popularize some keys ideas about the history of languages. I must say that it accomplishes its task in a very elegant and living way. To read Janson's book was an enjoyable activity, mainly because his amazing ability to put together historical data and illuminating comments about languages. However it has some severe limitations I want to point out now.
Firstly, I want to stress its most important achievement: the book poses a very convincing argument in favor of the idea that historical languages are not linguistic notions but political ones. Languages, in a historic perspective, are not determined by some structural features, but by a political decision made by its speakers to call "the language X" to their speech, disregarding any similarity or difference with other ways of talking. In such process, writing systems and State actions are fundamental. This conception has some painful consequences -- and, to my understanding, only a way to avoid them.
We all know, and Janson acknowledges, that there are languages without States or writing systems. Following Janson's criterion (although he did not state it in this way), we can consider these languages non-historical ones, or, more accurately, pre-historical ones. If this is true, it is an odd consequence, because such languages are contemporary to the others and we will be in the strange position of qualifying some of our contemporaries as out of the History -- what is, or should be, a contradiction. This can serve as a criterion to establish an undesirable hierarchy of languages. However, Janson seems to think something like that: "When it comes to the Khoisan Languages [without native name, state or writing system?] this whole line of reasoning is without meaning for them until the Westernized way of thinking about languages has been taken over into their culture" (p.24). That clearly means that there is even not possible to define a language outside the Western world. This is a conclusion that we cannot accept.
In addition, there are some full languages whose users never will form a State (and maybe never will pursuit the creation of a writing system): the Sign Languages of deaf people. The only time Janson speaks about them, he says: "All humans (excepting deaf people and some with other serious handicaps) speak at least one language" (p. 109). Although it is very clear that the author is talking about spoken languages, the exclusion of Sign Languages deserves a detailed explanation, given the overwhelming evidence that they function as any other natural language. It is unfortunate that the author had decided to stay silent in this case. It seems that, for Janson, Sign Languages are not historical languages also.
I believed that what confuses Janson is his narrow (but very classic) conception of History. It is traditional to assume that History begins with writing systems (that is, right after the formation of States). However, this exclude from History not only 40 000 years of human development but millions of people that are, in the present days, outside the benefits of a writing system (or even a State). A new conception of History is necessary.
Janson's conception of languages, however, has the advantage to disclose the artificiality of the standard beliefs about languages: English, German or Spanish are not linguistic products, but political ones -- a historic product, in Janson's terms. Therefore, they cannot be proper objects of study for Linguistics. What is a linguistic object is the language as a cognitive product; only from this perspective we cannot exclude anybody from being a language user. Of course, Janson is really far from this conclusion.
ABOUT THE REVIEWER Miguel Rodriguez-Mondonedo is a doctoral student in the Department of Linguistics, at the University of Connecticut. He is considering the origin of language as a topic of research, but he also has strong interest in syntax,phonetics, and philosophy of language. His web page is http://rodriguezmondonedo.virtualave.net Book Review:Towards a History of Linguistics in PolandDate: Fri, 19 Jul 2002 16:46:09 +0000 From: Andrzej Zychla <zychlapoczta.onet.pl> Subject: Koerner & Szwedek, eds. (2001) Towards a History of Linguistics in Poland
Koerner & Szwedek, eds. (2001) History of Ling: Towards a History of Linguistics in Poland Koerner E F.K (2001)Towards a History of Linguistics in Poland. From the early beginnings to the end of the 20th century.. John Benjamins Publishing Company, xx+317 pp., hardback ISBN: 90 272 4591 6, Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, 102
Book Announcement on Linguist: http://linguistlist.org/get-book.html?BookID=2373
Andrzej Zychla, The College of Foreign Languages, University of Zielona Gora, Poland.
This collection of 10 contributions should appeal to all professionals interested in the history of linguistics in Poland and, to a lesser extent, the neighbouring areas and countries. It is the outcome of intensive co-operation between specialists in the respective fields, translators and proof-readers and a successful attempt to summarise in one volume the major achievements of Polish linguists and linguistics. Most of the chapters have previously been published as papers in other, mainly historiographical, sources: for reasons of space they appear here in their abridged versions.
Even though there have already been some attempts to come up with similar compilations, their final outcomes were either edited in Polish (which makes them largely inaccessible to the English-speaking world), incomplete or prejudiced. The introduction itself deems most of those works 'textbook history' meant generally for 'neophyte' rather than a specialist reader, mostly 'derivative and unoriginal' in character.
I would like to present brief overviews of the chapters first, then comment on the volume as a whole.
The book has been divided into two major parts -- the first 5 chapters are devoted to the various subfields of linguistics and the historical developments thereof, the remaining five part fascinating portraits of some of the finest Polish linguists.
Part One:Chapter 1 -- Z. Wasik 'The Development of General Linguistics within the History of the Language Sciences in Poland: Late 1860s ' late 1960s' ' It is one of the longest chapters in the collection, covering a century of linguistic activity, carefully subdivided into further periods marked not so much by historically (or politically) significant events as by the major stages in the professional careers of the linguists depicted.
Chapter 2 -- F. Grucza 'Origins and Development of Applied Linguistics in Poland' -- The author argues that although certain applied aspects of language science have been pursued for many centuries, the conscious separation of applied linguistics can only be traced 200 years back. The author then goes on to clarify how applied linguistics became a separate science and touches upon the various disciplines it has evolved into.
Chapter 3 -- T. Piotrowski 'Lexicography in Poland: From the early beginnings to the present' -- It is an overview of Polish (mainly monolingual) lexicography with comments on the most important lexicographic works published (basic information on the most important bi-/multilingual dictionaries published in Poland given). The author discusses the co-existence of liberal and prescriptive approaches to language and dictionary and makes very interesting comments on how Polish dictionary makers are trying to adjust to the new, free market, reality.
Chapter 4 -- S. Gogolewski 'Dialectology in Poland, 1873-1997' -- It is devoted to the development of dialectology in Poland, discusses the origins of the science, its major achievements (e.g. Particular dictionaries or atlases) and provides some insight into the historical influences of dialects on literary Polish.
Chapter 5 -- S. Gala 'Onomastics in Poland: From 19th-century beginnings to the present' -- It discusses the history of the study of names in Poland and its relation to other branches of linguistics (and sciences). The paper stresses the high status accorded to onomastics in Poland.
Part Two:Chapter 6 -- A. Adamska-Salaciak 'Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's Contribution to General Linguistics' -- It is an account of the professional career of a scholar whose influence on science is still difficult to assess. Although Baudouin de Courtenay never wrote a major synthetic compilation of his theories, linguists do acknowledge some of them. There are other theories, the author suggests, that are yet to be acknowledged.
Chapter 7 -- F. M. Berezin 'Mikolaj Kruszewski and 20th-Century Linguistics'- It is written by the only non-Polish contributor to the volume (a renown Russian historian of linguistics) and draws attention of its readers to Mikolaj Kruszewski, a largely forgotten genius, very close to structuralism) long before the appearance of de Saussure's lectures on general linguistics). Kruszewski is acknowledged by many as one of the founders of modern linguistic theory.
Chapter 8 -- J. Banczerowski 'Mikolaj Rudnicki's General Linguistic Conceptions' -- the author presents Rudnicki's (1881-1978) views, the linguist who contributed significantly to general linguistics, phonology and structural phonetics.
Chapter 9 -- W. Smoczynski 'Jerzy Kurylowicz as Indo-Europeanist and Theorist of Language' -- The author suggests that Kurylowicz (1895-1978) was one of the greatest scholars in the history of Polish linguistics. Although he was most successful in Indo-European and the theory of language (and all areas of language structure), he was also interested in language structure and its mechanisms (he himself knew more than 10 languages).
Chapter 10 -- J. Banczerowski 'Aspects of Ludwik Zabrocki's Linguistic World' -- The portrait of Zabrocki's (1907-1977), whose wide interests, apart from general linguistics, included: comparative linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, cybernetics linguistics, Indo-European linguistics and applied linguistics.
The book serves as an excellent starting point for those wishing to investigate the history of Polish linguistics, In particular, it contains: --extensive (and very detailed) bibliographies (including sources in English, provided they are available) -- I found a few valuable references I had been previously unaware of; --5 photographs, 2 maps, title pages of important books; --pictures of Polish linguists, Polish abstracts under each chapter; --an Index of Authors and Index of Titles.
The two little problems I noticed were technical in character: - the Polish font is not satisfactory; - there are a few misprints.
ABOUT THE REVIEWER
The author of this review is an assistant at the College of Foreign Languages, University of Zielona Gora, Poland. He defended his MA thesis (a critical evaluation of one of the Polish bilingual dictionaries) in 1998. He is currently working on his PhD dissertation (Defining strategies used by EFL teachers and their possible implications for dictionary definitions). His interests include: (meta) lexicography and applied linguistics (language teaching methodology and translation, both technical and literary). He is also in charge of the ELT section of WSz PWN's official webpage (one of the major publishing houses in Poland). Book Review:Literary Translation: A Practical Guide(2)Landers, Clifford E. (2001) Literary Translation: A Practical Guide. Multilingual Matters Ltd., paperback ISBN 1-85359-519-5, x+214pp. Topics in Translation 22.
Book Announcement on Linguist: http://linguistlist.org/get-book.html?BookID=3163
Julie Huynh, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
Translation is a broad field, ranging from work with legal documents to brand name slogans to lyric poetry. In this informative, insightful, and highly readable book, Clifford E. Landers looks specifically at literary translation, distinguishing it from its technical and commercial counterparts. Serving as a kind of guide, this book takes the reader from an initial interest in literary translation to becoming a published professional. As such, it aims for a wide audience -- for the beginning as well as the experienced translator, for the translator of any language, and for the translator of various literary forms.
The book is divided into three main parts: "The Fundamentals", "The Techniques of Translation" and "The Working Translator". Each part contains multiple subsections that, in their brevity, manage to hit upon an array of related topics such as register and tone, cultural cues, and financial matters.
In "The Fundamentals" Landers introduces readers to the rewards of literary translation. By way of illustrating this, he opens the book with his own translation of a short piece by Brazilian writer Rubem Fonseca. Without translation, Landers points out, it would be difficult for English-speakers to enjoy the wealth of literature available in the many other languages of the world.
From the translator's point of view, literary translation can be rewarding because of its challenge. The translator seeks to convey thoughts and ideas with the same effect that they have in the original language. Thus, "how one says something can be as important, sometimes more important, than what one says" (7). Literary translation is unique in that it deals not only with the precision of language, but also with the aesthetic aspect of writing. Translators who engage in this creative process often find the work to be intellectually stimulating.
Also included in this first part is a discussion on how to get started in translation work. This covers considerations in choosing what language and how many languages to work with, how to find works to translate, submitting translated pieces for publication, and initial stages in the translation process.
The second part, "Techniques in Translation", constitutes the greater part of the book. Here, Landers explores many of the issues that literary translators often face. He mentions two basic approaches to translation: the target language oriented and the source language oriented. He also addresses 'resistance', the concept that a translation ought to read like a translation, upon which Landers concludes, "In short, I resist resistance" (54). Other topics touched on include tone, register, style, puns and wordplay, recreating subtexts, and finding an effective title. There is even a section devoted to other domains of literary translation such as non-fiction, theater, poetry, and children's literature.
In addition to addressing these problems, Landers also shares knowledge gained from his own experience. One especially noteworthy section is that on the translator's relationship with the author. By cultivating a relationship with the author, the translator opens up opportunities to gain the author's trust, to invite the author's help in the translation process, and to understand the author as a means to understanding his/her writing.
Landers's expertise is also evident in the advice that he offers on revision, proofreading, and finding a publisher. He gives examples of how he personally handles the revision process, going into details as specific as the colors and the markings he uses to categorize the corrections that are needed.
"The Working Translator" is the last and the shortest part of the book. This is where Landers lists reference materials that he finds essential to any translator. His citation of specific titles is helpful, particularly those that are lesser known, such as the "Oxford-Duden Pictorial Dictionaries." Next, he offers advice on setting up a workspace and developing a regular work routine. And finally, Landers goes into the details of financial matters as they pertain to the translator. This includes handling taxes, setting a price, other sources of income, and negotiating contracts. Landers closes this final part by giving readers another taste of Brazilian literature, this time a short piece by Moacyr Scliar.
Landers's "Literary Translation" is subtitled "A Practical Guide," and that is essentially what this book is. Landers includes a lot of information on the logistics of being a translator (getting translated works published, obtaining copyright permission, how to file taxes). Several useful lists are given throughout the book outlining steps and strategies during various points of the translation process. Landers is also careful to provide a sufficient number of examples to illustrate each of the points that he makes. Many of these are from Portuguese, but he does include other examples from French, Spanish, German, and even varieties of English.
One of the strengths of this book is its readability, due in large part to the author's sense of humor and engaging tone of voice. Not only does the book cite reference works, it also contains a diagram of the right and left hemispheres of the literary translator's brain, as well as a list of the twelve commandments of literary translation. A slight drawback to this is that, at times, some of the personal anecdotes are quite lengthy and sometimes distracting (there are 7 pages on a day in the life of a literary translator and 5 pages on how the author was tracking down an elusive Portuguese word that turned out to be a typo, while many of the other sections are only about 2 to 3 pages long). On the whole, however, Landers's personal insertions and witty remarks make the book not only informative but also friendly, accessible, and enjoyable.
What I find most valuable in this book is Landers's insight and knowledge gained from his years of experience as a prolific literary translator. He shares in detail the methods and approaches to translation work that he has developed over time, even including a sample of the kind of tally sheet he keeps of translations done and acceptance and rejection letters received. He offers advice on such issues as how to decline a request to translate a work that causes discomfort (for example, a pornographic piece or a piece containing language that the translator finds confusing). He also speaks on a very personal level, advising the reader against unrealistic expectations, offering suggestions on how to handle contracts that aren't honored, how to cope with bad reviews, and how to remain loyal to the author when asked for an opinion about his/her work. Landers's experience and expertise, combined with his honesty and confiding voice, inspire trust in his readers and make his words valuable to any aspiring or accomplished literary translator.
About the reviewer Julie Huynh is completing her B.A. in Linguistics and English at the University of Arizona. She plans to continue with graduate studies in English. Book Review: Literary Translation: A Practical Guide(1)Landers, Clifford E. (2001) Literary Translation: A Practical Guide. Multilingual Matters, x+214pp, paperback ISBN 1-85359-519-5, GBP 12.95, Topics in Translation Series 22
Donald F. Reindl, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA
Clifford E. Landers' practical guide to literary translation numbers twenty-second in the extensive Multilingual Matters series of works on translation. Although some of the works within this series address fairly specialized topics -- such as the translation of allusions and medieval Icelandic sagas -- Landers' contribution ranks among the works destined to be appreciated by a broader audience. The book is based on the premise of translation into English (p. ix), but Landers observes that, despite obvious specific differences, there are also a great many commonalities in the tasks that literary translators encounter in any pairing of languages. The title is apt: "Literary Translation" is a practical, rather than theoretical, contribution to the field and is definitely a guide, not a reference work. On the practical side, Landers starts by assuming that the goal of translation is publication, and that the translator is competent in the source language and target language (p. ix). He addresses several dozen practical topics in pithy sections from one to seven pages in length, ranging from the private concerns of translators (office setup, dealing with puns and dialect, drafts and revisions) to their professional interaction with the public (copyright, dealing with authors, finding publishers, dealing with contracts). Theory enters the discussion only insofar as it related to practical decisions -- for example, target- and source- language oriented translations, and the debatable doctrine of "resistance" (pp. 51-54). As a guide, the book is best read cover-to-cover, rather than consulted on an as-needed basis -- although readers may be tempted to skip ahead to sections with intriguing titles such as "The care and feeding of authors" (pp. 81-89), "English before there was English" (pp. 118-122), or "Pornography or 'pornography'?" (pp. 153-158). Aside from the glossary at the end of the book (pp. 206-209), there is little that can simply be "looked up" in the volume. In fact, the book does not even have an index -- nor does it need one. The feeling that emerges while reading the book is that of sitting down with a trusted friend or mentor for a candid conversation on the craft of translation.
From the beginning, it is emphasized that literary translation is basically a labor of love, clich� or not. Although literary translation may bring various rewards -- including intellectual satisfaction, credit to your name, prestige, and a personal acquaintance with notable figures -- profit is simply not a motivating factor. Unlike commercial translation, literary translation just does not have the financial backing commanded by advertising copy, corporate reports, and government legislation. Further, as Landers points out, literary translation is likely to remain underpaid because there have always been people that engage in it as a pastime or simply for the pleasure it brings (p. 8). It is unlikely that anyone is translating tax codes simply for the sake of intellectual satisfaction.
For the beginning translator, Landers offers a number of tips and encouragements, starting with the pronouncement that, if you want to be a translator, very well, "you are a translator" (p. 13) -- with the admonition that, since a translator's business is translating, it is time to start translating. Aside from this legitimization, he offers more concrete advice as well. Reasonably, he encourages specialization in less commonly translated languages, which offer less competition from other translators and may well harbor undiscovered literary gems. He also advises that beginners not bite off more than they can chew -- start with a short, carefully planned translation rather than attempting a lengthy novel. Landers also suggests that beginners not write off smaller journals as possible vehicles for their translations, and offers a personal mantra: "no publication is as obscure as non-publication" (p. 17). Specific recommendations for keeping records on submissions, rejections, and acceptances are also offered. Finally, there's the matter of dealing with harsh critics and bad reviews. From the exacting pedantry of literary scholars to the careless excoriation of anonymous reviewers, all literary translators eventually come up against negative reviews. Knowing that you are not alone may offer some measure of solace. Nor should beginners be discouraged by the fact that the treasures of the source language may already have been translated. Landers repeats the observation that a literary translation is an ephemeral art with a half life of, say, forty years -- necessitating new and fresh translations by successive generations as the target language continues to change (p. 11). A striking example of this is given on page 65, where corresponding passages of novel "Iracema" by the Brazilian writer Jos� de Alencar are given in an 1886 translation by Isabel Burton and in Landers' own 1997 translation. The two translations are markedly different in style, reflecting the readership for which they were intended. As elsewhere in the book, providing a translation as an example does much more to illustrate a point than would simply referring to the matter in abstract terms.
Landers also provides valuable advice for becoming steeped in the culture of the source language, arguing that cultural familiarity is just as, or even more, important for a literary translator as is linguistic familiarity (p. 74). From living in-country and establishing contacts with authoritative and reliable native speakers, to attending events at a variety of cultural levels (cockfighting, anyone?), to maintaining cultural contact long distance, the ultimate goal to strive for is not merely fluency, or even bilingualism, but biculturalism (p. 76). He points out how difficult it is to keep up with your own culture, let alone a foreign one, when not constantly immersed in it by citing a personal anecdote: after living for only three months in Rio de Janiero in 1965, he was baffled to encounter a reference to "flower children" in a "Time" magazine article (p. 76).
Throughout the guide, Landers emphasizes that his thoughts are intended as a stimulus to translation, not as dictates or precepts, and it is in this spirit that his "Twelve commandments of literary translation" (p. 167) should be taken. Nonetheless, there are a few cases where he comes down fairly strongly on an issue, including recommendations against translating into strongly-marked dialect, reading others' translations in advance of producing your own, or engaging in bowdlerization. On the positive side, he emphasizes reading the entire work before translating, reading the translated text aloud, and consulting with the author and with source-language native speakers.
For translators at all levels, Landers offers his thoughts on some of the knottier problems of literary translation: what to do with untranslatable puns (p. 109), when to provide descriptive paraphrases (p. 79), or whether to launch into an explanation of culturally-specific concepts (pp. 93-95). For the latter dilemma, Landers generally comes down on the side of pragmatics and the author's intent: "this is a novel, not a cookbook" (p. 40) and "this is a novel, not a sociological treatise" (p. 43).
Although English, as already mentioned, is set up as the target language, and although Landers' professional orientation toward translation from Brazilian Portuguese is obvious, the work is fairly accommodating in the language examples it cites. This includes reference throughout the text to specific illustrations of translation from, or into, languages including French, German, Norwegian and Spanish. His numerous arbitrary references to other languages -- for example, citing the likelihood of Lithuanian or Slovenian literary translators engaging in indirect translation through English for want of Portuguese (p. 119) -- come across as sensitive and reasonable, rather than flippant.
Landers displays a familiarity with quickly-evolving modern technology, offering his measured observations on the potential advantages of electronic dictionaries, word processors ("does anyone still use a typewriter?" p. 180), spell checkers and grammar checkers, and Internet resources ("a last resort, but ask me again in five years," p. 179). No less in-touch are his connections to modern popular culture, citing examples such as the Harry Potter phenomenon in the translation of children's literature, and the charges from some quarters that it promotes witchcraft (p. 106-108) or Internet chat room debates on the possible lesbian subtext of the television series "Xena, Warrior Princess" (p. 127).
The finishing touch to the book was the author's decision to introduce and close the guide with two of his own translations from Brazilian Portuguese, with short stories written by Rubem Fonseca and Moacyr Scliar, respectively (pp. 3-4, 197-199). Both of these intriguing stories exemplify the pleasure to be derived from discovering foreign language literature, and the doubling of that pleasure when it is translated and shared with others.
Landers' witty and accessible style makes the book a pleasure to read, and the humor that he injects into the discussion will coax occasional laughter from even the most serious readers. The insight that it provides into the challenges faced by even accomplished translators provides ample material for reflection -- whether in the form of sobering, but encouraging, observations for those considering entering the field, or for more seasoned translators, who will surely recognize their own experiences in the pitfalls and triumphs that Landers describes. The guide gives a frank view of the labor involved in crafting the ultimately rewarding product: a work of literature seamlessly translated for the target language reader. Landers' book is certain to be appreciated by those engaged in translation, but would also be enjoyable -- and instructive -- reading for those for whom the translation process is truly invisible: readers of translations.
ABOUT THE REVIEWER Donald F. Reindl is a doctoral candidate in Slavic linguistics at the Department of Slavic Languages and Literatures at Indiana University, Bloomington, USA. His research interests include historical linguistics, language planning, and language contact. He is currently working as a translator and university lecturer in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Book Review:Translation and Nation: Towards a Cultural Politics of EnglishnessEllis, Roger, and Liz Oakley-Brown, eds. (2001) Translation and Nation: Towards a Cultural Politics of Englishness (Topics in Translation 18). Multilingual Matters, paperback ISBN: 1-85359-517-9, vi+225pp, GBP 19.95. Reviewed by: Chaoqun Xie, Foreign Languages Institute, Fujian Teachers University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
Linguist List book announcement at http://linguistlist.org/issues/12/12-295.html#1 The cultural turn of translation studies (see e.g. Bassnett and Lefevere 1990: 1-13; Toury 1995) in the 1990s has resulted in both an increasingly better understanding of the cultural aspects of all writing, including translation, and a greater awareness of the role of translation in broad areas of human culture on the other. Because of its centrality to human interaction, many intellectual disciplines have converged on the translation as "a central locus of inquiry" (Tymoczko 1999: 16), providing a funding of theoretical and practical studies. And the relationship between translation and various phenomena has been explored in the last few decades and has become a leitmotif of translation theory. The present volume under review boasts an endeavor to expound the translated text's historical and cultural specificity. All the essays in this volume, as clearly set out in the introduction, "are concerned with the cultural and political implications of translation and the construction of English subjectivities at particular historical moments" (p.2).This volume is a multidisciplinary study of translation couched within the framework of culture, history, politics and linguistics.
Chapter 1, "Figures of English Translation, 1382-1407" (pp. 7-47), written by one of the editors Roger Ellis, dwells upon the cultural and political implications of translation in texts produced in the quarter-century before the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Arundel issued a ban, drafted in 1407, against unlicensed Bible translation in England. The figures referred to in the title of this chapter are twofold: first the translators themselves about their translations; secondly, the figures, Biblical or other, homegrown and European, whom they cited in support of their projects (p. 8). Before 1409, there had been an important debate with regard to the possibility and justification of vernacular translation, in which many figures had been engaged, such as Geoffrey Chaucer, John Trevisa, the author of the so- called Prologue to the Wycliffite Bible, and Ullerston. According to Chaucer, the then court poet, a translator totally identified with his original, and possessed of the linguistic means to carry it over to like-minded readers, will grant readers immediate and unmediated access to its truth (p. 9). Chaucer argues for a distinction between the single truth of a translated 'sentence' and the variations in its 'telling'. And Trevisa, who was fellow for a time of the Queen's College, Oxford, presents translation not simply in terms of literary culture, like Chaucer, but rather as a part of everyday communication. In emphasizing speech and dialogue as the condition of translation, Trevisa is also emphasizing the provisionality of translation. Another point worth noting is that Trevisa accepts multiple translations of the same text, regarding them as a way of counteracting error in an individual text. Thirdly, Trevisa is very positive about the role of Latin as the lingua franca of medieval Europe. For Trevisa's achievements, Ellis concludes that they are both 'hugely impressive' and 'limited' (p. 15). And although the Prologue to the Wycliffite Bible, Chapter 15, has very close links with the arguments of Chaucer and Trevisa, there is a subtle shift in emphasis: where Trevisa saw multiple versions as a way of counteracting the error in an individual text, the Wycliffite Prologue uses them collectively as a way of guaranteeing truth.
Chapter 2, "Translating the Subject: Ovid's Metamorphoses in England 1560-67" (pp. 48-84), is contributed by another editor of this present volume Liz Oakley-Brown. By closely examining Ovid's text produced in the opening decade of Elizabethan rule, this essay explores the complex transformation of the English subject as it shifted from Catholicism to Protestantism. Although discussions about identity, representation, subjectivity and the self in early England had been numerous, most failed "to bring the subject of translation explicitly into the debate" (p. 48). Stephen Greenblatt's "Renaissance Self- Fashioning", one of the most widely cited book in this field, is no exception. The notion that translating texts are culturally and historically significant for the construction of the subject, in Greenblatt and elsewhere, has remained critically neglected. In this essay, Oakley-Brown argues that English versions of Ovid's "Metamorphoses", in particular the anonymous "Fable of Ovid Treting of Narcissus"(1560), Thomas Peend's "Pleasant Fable of Hermaphroditus and Salmacis" (1565), and Arthur Golding's "Metamophosis" (1567), are arenas for complex shifts in the construction of the English subject at this time (p.49).
Chapter 3, "Women Translators, Gender and the Cultural Context of the Scientific Revolution" (pp.85-119), is contributed by Christa Knellwolf. By studying the genre of popularisations of science, this chapter examines the role of the audience in scientific publications and asks in what ways gender figures as an element that facilitates (or hinders) the transmission of knowledge. Through a detailed analysis of the translations of scientific texts, including Aphra Behn's and Elizabeth Carter's versions of, respectively, Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and Francesco Algarotti, Knellwolf exerts an effort to show that there are convoluted relationships between gender, nation and knowledge, concluding that translation serves as a forum in which stereotypes and prejudices are both challenged and confirmed.
Chapter 4, "Hooked on Classics: Discourses of Allusion in the Mid- Victorian Novel" (pp. 120-166), is written by Hugh Osborne. Sufficient critical attention has not been paid to the use of classical allusion, or indeed of allusion generally, in mid-Victorian fiction. The reason for this, according to Osborne, may be linked to a prevailing view of nineteenth- century fiction assuming that fiction of the period necessarily shies away from self-reflexivity and deliberately intertextual narrative strategies (p. 120). And this present chapter seeks to qualify the nature of classical allusion in the novels of Anthony Trollope in particular, a writer whose output has long and predominantly been thought as 'realist'. Osborne concurs with Michael Wheeler's broad definition of allusion: Allusion is the generic term for quotations and references, and for the act of quoting or referring (Wheeler, 1979: 2-3). However, Osborne criticizes Wheeler's definition for failing to take into account a whole range of allusions that do not fall under any of its categories (p.122). With regard to the various functions of classical allusions, the author argues that classical allusion does not merely contribute to a discourse of remembrance, whose use confirms and reveals a formative and difinitional community of the past. It also signifies belonging to a community of the present, the community of the 'gentleman'- a community just as pervasive, just as seemingly self-evident, just as exclusive and crucially just as difficult to define (p. 144). For the author, classical allusion serves as an inherently unstable signifier of a variety of competing forms of masculine identity (p. 164). In the final section of this essay, Osborne examines how classical allusion contributes to mid-Victorian notions of 'gentlemanliness', and dwells on how the assumptions about class and gender inherent in such notions were both naturalised and challenged. Through an exploration of writings by Trollope and other contemporaries, Osborne argues that classical allusions, and contemporary discussions of them, become textual spaces in which various class- and gender-based power struggles can be enacted. This chapter draws to a conclusion that some of the most striking instances of the interpellation of their readers by Trollope's text occur precisely at the moment when linguistic self-effacement is ruptured, and when Trollope's readership becomes implicated in the maintenance and affirmation of a vast network of intertextual references which performatively operate to construct that readership's subjectivity.
The first four chapters expounds the construction of Englishness through translation strategies which operate within the boundaries of the nation state itself. And the final chapter, Chapter 5, contributed by Rainer Emig, is titled "'All the Others Translate': W. H. Auden's Poetic Dislocations of Self, Nation, and Culture" (pp. 167-204). This essay investigates the changing role of translation in the development of Auden's poetics. Auden used to be an English subject living in Germany in the early 1930s. Instead of primarily scrutinizing the technical details of his translations, Emig concentrates on the implications of Auden's approaches to translation for questions of subjectivity, linguistic and cultural identity. Fist, Auden starts translating contemporary Scandinavian and Russian writers that he can no longer appropriate as spiritual or actual ancestors. Second, he begins to acknowledge influence as a form of dialogue, and abandons appropriation in favor of an opening-up to positions that cannot, after all, be translated into his established scheme of Englishness, but may be used as often relativising, paralles. A third and perhaps the most radical new form of translation in Auden's works entails translation between different media (p. 176).
In the second half of this essay, Emig deals with the implications of Auden's 'contemporary' translations and those that display what recent German theory has termed Intermedialitaet, which translates, at best awkwardly, into English as 'intermediality'. The very fact that Auden chooses authors whose cultural as well as linguistic context is alien to him indicates that there is an opening of the cultural boundaries that define and safeguard individual as well as national identity. That translation, and the precarious identity that it creates, and on which it simultaneously rests, cannot be regarded without reference to their translation enables Auden to work out his philosophical model of a reconciliation of differences that is not a homogenization of those differences but a dialogue and negotiation between them, one that retains and respects difference. The complexity of modernity is largely founded on the simultaneous proliferation of these translations of texts and context and an awareness of this discursive explosion. Emig concludes that while his artistic ideal of reconciling private and public remains equally problematic, Auden's works nonetheless demonstrate a keen awareness that, within the ungroundedness of culture and communication, translation acts both as a reminder of these contingent foundations and as a reassurance that inside this contingency communication can and must continue to be attempted (p. 244). In this sense, Emig's essay fittingly rounds off the present volume under review.
To be sure, this volume delivers what it promises -- it suggests ways of looking at the interpellation of the English subject, a subject formed through a variety of matrices, including those of nation, gender, religion and class, through texts that engage with translation in differing ways. The volume tries to bring the translated text's historical and cultural specificity into the forefront. However, the way these essays present their ideas, as I see it, still leaves some room for improvement. And a few words are in order here. Sometimes, if not often, the reader seems at a loss how to follow the contributors' presentations to come to grips with their viewpoints. It would even harder for undergraduate students, those with English as their second language or those unfamiliar with cultural, political and historical background in early Britain, to follow. To sum up, this book is good rather than excellent.
References Bassnett, Susan, and Andre Lefevere (eds.) (1990) Translation, History and Culture. London: Printer. Tymoczko, Maria (1999) Translation in a Postcolonial Context. Manchester: St. Jerome. Toury, Gideon (1995) Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Wheeler, M. (1979) The Art of Allusion in Victorian Fiction. London: R. Gosling.
About the reviewer: Chaoqun Xie is a lecturer and doctoral student at Foreign Languages Institute, Fujian Teachers University in Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China. His main areas of research interests include cognitive linguistics, pragmatics, translation and communication. Book Review:Translation in the Global VillageSchaeffner, C. 2000. Translation in the Global Village. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 72 pages. Hardback. 26 GB pounds. ISBN 1- 85359-488-1
Jacobus A. Naude, University of the Free State (South Africa)
SYNOPSIS The book, also available as volume 6(2) of the journal Current Issues in Language and Society, provides a report of a CILS seminar held at Aston University, United Kingdom, on 9 February 1999. The main contribution is the paper of Mary Snell-Hornby of the University of Vienna (Communicating in the Global Village: On Language, Translation and Cultural Identity). Snell-Hornby's paper shows the effect of globalisation and the advances in technology on the production and the perception of language, on translation and the job profile of the translator. The section following her paper reports the discussion held at the seminar (The Debate). This is followed up by a series of six responses by colleagues mainly from the UK on aspects of the paper. The book is concluded by some comments from Snell-Hornby on the responses, written during autumn 1999. The issues concerned are introduced by Christina Schaeffner (Introduction: Globalisation, Communication, Translation) and centered on the two conflicting forces of globalism and tribalism. In what follows, these two concepts and their implications will be outlined as presented in the book.
Globalism The premise of the paper and the discussion is that the globalisation processes, which are seen as supranational, i.e. boundaries are ignored and place and time are transcended, affect all spheres of life including areas of economy and marketing, political and social systems, institutions, values, and the daily activities of individual people. The following picture of globalisation is depicted. Nations are pressed into one commercially homogeneous global network; a McWorld tied together by technology, ecology, communications and commerce. The Internet becomes the digital marketplace for e-commerce and many other activities. It is estimated that in 2004, one billion people will be part of the virtual seventh continent. Where the radio, TV and telephone took decades to change the world, the Internet revolution will only need a few years to do so. New communities of users and/or chatters on a particular web site, or on an e-mail list, without knowing each other personally, are formed as well. Information and messages exist everywhere and at any time. Communication in the global village is de facto the privilege of those with technological tools, marginalising millions in lesser-developed countries as well as have-nots in the richer countries. These still communicate by simple word of mouth or through conventional written texts, their view of the world tends to be local and regional rather than global.
Snell-Hornby indicates three main areas that have undergone considerable changes over the last few years: the nature of the material the consumer has to process, the language in which it is presented, and the concept of text. She views the linguistic McWorld to present its own intellectual fast food via the Internet which is dominated by its own McLanguage, a particular brand of American English, reduced in stylistic range and subject matter, and with the aid of abbreviations, icons, acronyms and graphic design, tailor-made for fast consumption, an international lingua franca, colloquial in register even when in written form, open to all kinds of interference from other languages according to the background and the linguistic competence of the writers all over the world, and with no great concern for native-speaker prescriptivism. Similarly, in the European Union, European English is emerging, as a kind of Eurolect or Eurojargon to fulfil the communicative needs of the member states, and this development occurs despite the declared policy of democratic multilingualism. The computer screen and the endless possibilities of telecommunication do not absorb or arrange the endless snippets of information or the flood of images into a coherent message as in an earlier stage during which the products of the communication act over long distances could be neatly classified into spoken and written, into business correspondence, telegrams, phone calls, reports, and so forth.
Tribalism Snell-Hornby shows that globalisation is accompanied by an opposite trend, tribalisation, which too has an effect on perception of language, and also on translation. With the emergence of new national identities after the fall of the Iron Curtain, individual ethnic groups are rediscovering their cultural heritage and with it the significance of their own mother tongue, particularly if they are in conflict with other groups. Natural languages are promoted to conform the nation's cultural identity by expanding the use of its language. The most striking, example is the emergence of Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian as separate languages from what was known as Serbo-Croat.
Between these two extremes Snell-Hornby sets the sociological notion of cultural identity, which indicates a community's awareness of and pride in its own unmistakable features (an individual's sense of belonging to that community, whether by birth, language or common territory), but implies that it is still able to communicate with and exist in harmony with other communities in the world surrounding. It is not bound by either the uniformity of globalism or the destructive aggression of tribalism. She based her view of the concept of cultural identity on that of the German sociologist and philosopher Georg Simmel and the sociologist and psychologist Dieter Claessens. She criticized Venuti's use of the concept as based on the notion of a subject's self-image as well as the way he/she is viewed from an outsider's viewpoint (Venuti 1994). For the second aspect Snell-Hornby would prefer to speak of constructed clich� images or stereotypes. (As indicated by Mona Baker and Said Faiq, Venuti has been influenced by Cultural Studies, and particularly by people like Edward Said, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida and others.) Stereotypes and misinterpretations often permeate the images, that people in the target culture receive of the source culture, and translations can contribute to this effect, as has been pointed out by Venuti (1998).
Effect on language Snell-Hornby viewed the effect of the recent developments on the world language English from three different perspectives. Firstly, there is the free-floating lingua franca that has largely lost track of its original cultural identity, its idioms, its hidden connotations and its grammatical subtleties, and has become a reduced standardised form of language for supra-cultural communication. Secondly, there are the many individual varieties, by and large mutually intelligible, but yet each an expression of a specific cultural identity (Indian English, British English, etc.). Finally, there are the literary hybrid forms as demonstrated in postcolonial literature, forging a new language 'in between', adapted to its new surroundings (cf. Bassnett & Trivedi 1999).
Gunilla Anderman, in her response paper, points out that among translators an awareness must be heightened that the variety of English required to convey information about a nation's literary heritage or its cultural identity must be of an infinitely more subtle variety.
Effect on translation Translation has been made obsolete because to a great extent communication is carried out in the lingua franca English, and formal business correspondence has to some extent been replaced by e-mail, fax or mobile phone. Some communication relies simply on basic mutual intelligibility and no translation is needed. There is a greater role for machine translations (rough versions of insider information for internal use) because of the necessity for speedy processing, the tolerance of less than impeccable language forms and the levelling of culture-specific differences. Multimedia communication creates new text types and in the area of intercultural communication not only language mediation is required, but heightened cultural expertise.
Schaeffner indicates on the one hand that translation can play a role in presenting to a target culture an image of a source culture, thereby achieving mutual understanding in the sense of a growing awareness of differences. On the other hand, cultures may also use translations to represent and define, or redefine themselves, i.e. delimit themselves from other cultures.
Effect on the job profile of the modern translator Snell-Hornby sketches the translator as an expert for intercultural communication in an internationalised world, which is at the same time characterised by an abundance of individual cultural communities. These are illustrated by comparing four authentic translation assignments: from an international organisation (International English in the source text), from an electric appliances firm with branches all over Europe (culture-specific aspects in an instruction manual), from an airline publicity leaflet (culture- specific aspects in an advertising leaflet), and from a recent best-selling novel (literary hybrid text). Contrary to Newmark, Snell-Hornby views the translator's responsibilities to go well beyond what was traditionally considered as translation proper, i.e. a linguistically accurate text conversion. Schaeffner describes the constantly changing job profile of the translator to include among other things text production (frequently multisemiotic or multimedial) for a clearly defined user and purpose; making non- translators, i.e. those who commission and consume the final product aware of what translation actually entails; do terminological work; give advice and do public relations. In addition translators are expected to master the new technologies. The prediction that translators will become extinct in the near future is not shared by translation scholars. It is, however, true that translations need to be done more quickly, much more efficiently , and have to be of a high quality. There are still many translation assignments that require the production of a target text where appropriateness for the specified purpose may involve rearrangements of information, deletions, additions, etc. (cf. Nord 1997). This implies that human translators must have much more than linguistic competence alone which includes qualities such as subject- specific competence, cultural competence, text- typological competence, technical writing competence and research competence.
CRITICAL EVALUATION The paper and responses mostly depict a view on the global village and International English from a European Union viewpoint and leave the impression that the global village comprises Europe only. Although Snell-Hornby accused Terry Hale that he missed her message in his response paper, he provided, in my opinion, a more accurate picture of the role of computer-mediated communication and the role of English in lesser developed countries. Although people in these countries mostly do not own their own equipment, they normally make use of the local cyber-caf� or have access to the technological tools via governmental and/or private institutions and companies. At least for educational purposes this new technology enfranchises (and empowers) thousands who do not have access to (well-stocked) libraries. And in most cases, it would not be possible if it were not for the existence of a certain variety of English in the user-community. The information retrieved is as linguistically rich and stylistically varied as it would be if obtained from a conventional source such as a library. It may be not so obvious from the European/Western viewpoint, but the global village indeed comprises and influences living in the lesser developed countries. However, Snell-Hornby is correct in her view that the have-nots in the richer as well as the lesser developed countries will be further marginalised, as well as that the richer and poorer countries will be further polarised (because the economies of the last-mentioned cannot compete with those the former) - further trends of the global village. In the future the two conflicting forces of globalism and tribalism may turn out to be in themselves self-correcting forces. Although Snell-Hornby claims that she is only describing what is happening with English, namely its diversification into multiple Englishes (correctly so), any reader of the book will detect a touch of linguistic anxiety between the lines on two facades, namely the loss of standardised English (her critic on the quality of a global McLanguage in The Debate and Concluding Comments) and the threat to languages of lesser diffusion. In Europe (and elsewhere), the English language will change considerably under the impact of globalism, although some standardisation may take place as commonly accepted terms are developed. As Hale indicated, languages of lesser diffusion (Dutch, Greek, Welsh) have enhanced their status due to their participation in the project of creating a unified Europe. This may be true of other parts of the global village, where the use of English goes hand in hand with a growth of multilingualism. To avoid a breakdown of communication in the global village all the various means used in the past will still be needed, inter alia translation, interpreting, fostering the growth of multilingualism and the promotion of an existing language as a language of communication.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Bassnett, S & Trivedi, H 1999. Post-colonial translation: theory and practice. London: Routledge. Nord, C 1997. Translating as a purposeful activity: functionalist approaches explained. Manchester, UK: St Jerome. Venuti, L 1994. Translation and the formation of cultural identities. Current Issues in Language and Society 1, 201-17. Venuti, L 1998. The scandals of translation:towards an ethics of difference. London: Routledge.
REVIEWER Dr Jacobus (Jackie) A. Naud� is senior lecturer and teaches Translation Studies, Linguistics (Syntax), Dead Sea Scroll Studies, Hebrew and Aramaic Grammar. Research interests: Contemporary translation studies and translation of religious literature into the 11 official languages of South Africa, the application of modern linguistic theory (minimalist programme) on the description and explanation of syntactic structures in non-living languages, eg. the syntax of independent personal pronouns in Qumran Hebrew.
J A. Naud� Near Eastern Studies University of the Free State PO Box 339 9300 Bloemfontein South Africa Book Review:Language and History in the Early Germanic WorldGreen, D. H. (1998) Language and History in the Early Germanic World, Cambridge University Press, xv+444 pp.
Marc Pierce, University of Michigan
The volume under consideration here examines the encounter of the early Germanic tribes with non-Germanic peoples (mainly the Romans and the Celts) and with Christianity, drawing on insights from linguistics, archaeology, and history to do so. It is based on a series of lectures given by the author to undergraduates at Cambridge University, and is intended not "to advance the frontiers of knowledge," but rather to "provide students with a broad survey which they could not map out for themselves" (ix). This is not to imply, however, that this is a book for beginners (or for the more advanced but faint-hearted). On the contrary, a considerable background in historical Germanic linguistics is necessary. However, the book is eminently readable, and has been justifiably praised in a number of reviews (e.g., Getty 2000, Hugus 2000, Kyes 1998, Robinson 2000, and Salmons forthcoming).
The book opens with a brief introductory chapter ('General introduction'), in which G discusses what linguistics (more accurately, philology), archaeology, and history can contribute to each other. The book proper consists of three large sections, each of which contains seven thematic chapters and a brief introduction. The sections are as follows:
I: The Germanic World ('Religion', 'Law', 'Kinship', 'Warfare', 'People and army', 'Lordship', and 'Kingship')
II: Contact with the non-Germanic world ('Contact with the Celts', 'The migration of the Goths', 'Germanic loanwords in Latin', 'Latin loanwords in Germanic', 'Trade and warfare with the Romans', 'Names of days of the week', 'The vocabulary of writing')
III: Contact with Christianity ('Problems of Christianisation', 'The influence of provincial Roman Christianity', 'The influence of Gothic', 'The influence of the Merovingian Franks', 'The influence of the Anglo-Saxons', 'Contrasts in Christian vocabulary', 'The vocabulary of ethics and fate'). The book concludes with two separate bibliographies, one of works written in English (added to this paperback edition for the convenience of students), as well as a more comprehensive one. There is an index of words, listed by language, but unfortunately no general subject index.
Part I progresses smoothly from etymology to etymology. Each chapter focuses on a handful of etymologies, adding historical and archaeological evidence when available. The following example, drawn from G's discussion of the early Germanic terms for 'place of worship' (23-28), illustrates G's method. Old High German harug is used as a gloss for a number of Latin terms, with meanings ranging from 'altar' to 'holy grove', e.g., ara, delebrum, lucus, and nemus. Its Old English cognate hearg has an even broader range of meanings, e.g., 'wood', 'holy grove', 'idol', 'sanctuary', while Old Norse hoergr (oe= umlauted o) means 'heap of stones', 'place of worship', and 'mountain'. G furthermore carefully reviews the onomastic evidence (place names consisting of or including the names of pagan gods are richly attested throughout the Germanic language area, including Scandinavian place names like Gudhjem, Gudme, and Gudum [from an earlier Gudhem], Godesberg [from an earlier Wudinisberg] in Germany, and so on). To this linguistic evidence, G adds historical evidence; for example, Tacitus alludes to the sacred woods and groves of Germania (Tacitus 7, 39, and 40). Finally, G cites archaeological evidence, noting that there were (apparently) no buildings built for sacred purposes, but that fenced-off sacrificial sites have been found in moorlands.
Part II takes a slightly different tack. While the general methodology remains the same, G here focuses on contact with non-Germanic peoples. In this part, G concentrates largely on loan words and onomastic evidence. For instance, in his discussion of Germanic-Celtic contact, G first examines two possible loan words from Germanic into Celtic (words for 'trousers' and 'horse'), before turning to the converse, loan words from Celtic into Germanic. Here G discusses a number of cases, for concepts ranging from 'ruler' to 'iron'. An example of the onomastic evidence cited by G is the place name Bohemia, from Boii, a Celtic tribe that once inhabited that region. This further turns up as the name of a region in Germany, namely Bavaria (Latin Baibari, Baioarii, Old High German Peigira).
I particularly enjoyed the chapter on 'Names of days of the week' (236-253). Here G does an excellent job of describing the tension between pre-Christian and Christian names for the days of the week. Thus, for example, in Slavic, the Christian names triumphed; words for 'Saturday' and 'Sunday' were introduced, and then, to avoid any possible pagan taint, the remaining days of the week were numbered. In Germanic, of course, this wholesale elimination of pre-Christian terms did not take place (note also that Roman gods were replaced by Germanic gods). G rightly points out, however, that pre-Christian implications were sometimes obscured when words were borrowed; thus, it is unlikely that speakers of Old English who were unfamiliar with Latin perceived the Latin original Saturni dies in saeterndaeg 'Saturday'.
This chapter, as well as the following one, 'The vocabulary of writing' (254-270), leads neatly into Part III, which deals with the contact of the Germanic tribes with Christianity. In this section, G focuses mainly on Old High German for practical reasons, since a thorough discussion of this issue with regards all the early Germanic languages would be unwieldy. He also points out that this focus is not overly narrow, thanks to the broad range of external influences on Old High German, as well as the influence of Old High German itself on the other early Germanic languages.
This particular area is, of course, fraught with difficulties. As G points out, a number of tensions exist in this area, most prominently perhaps the conflict between the need to wean new converts from their earlier religious practices and the need to retain new converts, presumably eased by minimizing changes. Thus, for example, do you follow the Roman practice of generally permitting pre- Christian practices to continue, or do you take the more proactive stance of Boniface and cut down the Frisians' sacred tree (and, incidentally, get beheaded for doing so)? There are also a number of linguistic difficulties, including the need for new terminology.
The chapters involving the various sources of Christian influence are particularly well-done; there are four in all, discussing the influence of Roman Christianity, the Goths, the Merovingian Franks, and the Anglo-Saxons, respectively. Thus, in the chapter on Gothic, G discusses a number of possible and definite loan words from Gothic into Old High German, beginning with Old High German phaffo 'priest' (now replaced in Modern German by Priester; its descendant, Pfaffe, is pejorative), ultimately derived from Greek papas (Latin papa), as well as Bavarian dialect words for days of the week. In these chapters, G is careful in making his claims. Thus, while he rejects the idea of a Gothic mission, he admits possible Gothic influence on Old High German. This general idea crops up again in the chapter on the influence of the Merovingian Franks, where G dismisses the idea that an Irish mission took place, but suggests that there was indirect Irish influence.
There are bound to be quibbles with a work of this magnitude, and this book is no exception. G draws his linguistic data mostly from Gothic, Old High German, and Old English; Old Norse, Old Saxon and Old Low Franconian receive much less attention. This limited view is somewhat unfortunate, particularly in the case of Old Saxon, as the Old Saxon Heliand exhibits a number of fascinating pre- Christian elements in the Christ story (c.f. Murphy 1989, 1991, Cathey 1995). Along these lines, there is some trouble with the words listed under "Old Low Franconian" in the index, as none of these words are actually attested in the (admittedly limited) Old Low Franconian corpus (Kyes 1998).
G also sometimes adheres too closely to older scholarship for my liking. A case in point is his discussion of the Germanic word for 'rune'. The traditional etymology for this word, attested as Gothic ruuna [uu= long u] 'mystery, secret, counsel', Old Norse ruun 'secret, magic sign, rune', Old Saxon/Old High German ruuna 'confidential talk, advice', relies on the (presumably) magical nature of the runes to make the connection (thus Grimm 1821, Lehmann 1986, and Kluge/Seebold 1995, among others). Fell (1991), however, argues that the traditional etymology needs to be rethought, pointing out that the adjectives most commonly used to modify the Old English form geryne are halig 'holy' and gaestlic 'spiritual'. Fell furthermore argues that "the various forms of geryne are not used for pagan belief... [but for] the 'mystery' of Easter, of baptism, of the sacrament, of the Trinity, the Incarnation....The geryne are those of God or the Savior" (Fell 1991: 206). This leads Fell to the conclusion that Old English ruun can only be translated as 'mystery' in the theological sense-- a usage found in some (older) English Bible translations, e.g., "Let a man so account of us, as of the ministers of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God" (1 Corinthians 4: 1, King James Version). Unfortunately, G does not discuss this claim, suggesting only that "a general, non-technical usage needs to be distinguished from a specialized runic function" (255).
I also wonder about the possible audience for this book. As indicated above, this is certainly not a book for the beginner. G assumes considerable background knowledge on the part of the reader, often using terms and concepts that may be unfamiliar to the beginner without explaining them (e.g., e2, stem classes, and so on). Quotations are normally paraphrased, not glossed, regardless of the source language, thus requiring at least a working knowledge of Latin and the early Germanic languages.
These are relatively minor complaints, however. This book is a major contribution to the field, and, while I would be somewhat hesitant to use it as a primary textbook, it would be extremely useful as supplementary reading in a number of graduate level courses in Germanic linguistics, history, and culture.
References Cathey, James E. 1995. Give us this day our daily rad. Journal of English and Germanic Philology 94: 157-175. Fell, Christine E. 1991. Runes and semantics. In: Old English runes and their continental background. Edited by Alfred Bammesberger. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Pp. 195- 229. Getty, Michael. 2000. Review of Green 1998. Anthropological Linguistics 42: 118-121. Grimm, Wilhelm. 1821. Ueber deutsche Runen. Goettingen: In der Dieterischen Buchhandlung. Hugus, Frank. 2000. Review of Green 1998. Speculum 75: 470-472. Kluge, Friedrich. 1995. Etymologisches Wvrterbuch der deutschen Sprache. 23d edition. Revised by Elmar Seebold. Berlin: de Gruyter. Kyes, Robert L. 1998. Review of Green 1998. Michigan Germanic Studies 24: 164-169. Lehmann, Winfred P. 1986. A Gothic etymological dictionary. Leiden: Brill. Murphy, G. Ronald, S.J. 1989. The Saxon Savior. The Germanic transformation of the gospel in the ninth- century Heliand. Oxford: Oxford University Press. _____. 1991. Magic in the Heliand. Monatshefte 93: 386- 397. Robinson, Orrin W. 2000. Review of Green 1998. Journal of English and Germanic Philology 99: 412-414. Salmons, Joseph C. forthcoming. Review of Green 1998. To appear in Diachronica. Tacitus. 1999. Germania. Translated with introduction and commentary by J. B. Rives. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
****** Marc Pierce is a Ph.D. candidate in Germanic Linguistics at the University of Michigan, where he is writing a dissertation on syllable structure and Sievers' Law in Gothic and Old Norse. His major research interests are historical linguistics, phonology, and early Germanic culture, religion, and literature. Book Review:Modern Chinese: History and SociolinguisticsChen, Ping. 1999. Modern Chinese: History and Sociolinguistics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Pp. 244. Hb$59.95, Pb$21.95.
Reviewed by Wi-vun Taiffalo Chiung, University of Texas at Arlington
In the Han cultural areas such as China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam, the public's strong demands for literacy have focused efforts on language and orthographic reform since the nineteenth century. Debates on standardization of the national language, and on the use of the Han characters have been going on for more than a hundred years in these areas. Chen's book surveys the promotion of Mandarin Chinese and the reforms of Han writing in the case of China. The book presents a comprehensive account of the development of Modern Chinese from the late nineteenth century up to the 1990s. The book is divided into three parts: 1) modern spoken Chinese, 2) modern written Chinese, and 3) the modern Chinese writing system. Each part consists of several chapters; some chapters in this book are based on Chen's previous works published in various journals.
The first part of the book (i.e. modern spoken Chinese) covers three chapters entitled establishment and promotion of modern spoken Chinese, norms and variations of modern standard Chinese, and the standard and dialects. Since the middle of the nineteenth century, China had suffered from western colonialism. In that situation, education was considered as important tool to equip and modernize China. In order to educate people, language reform, including both spoken and written forms, was taken as one of the most urgent aspects. In China, there are several different so-called "dialects," such as Mandarin, Southern Min, Hakka, and Cantonese that are mutually unintelligible. Under the assumption that linguistic uniformity was a necessary precondition for the unity of the country, Mandarin, which had served as the official language of three successive dynasties for hundreds of years, was finally chosen as the national language of China in the early part of the twentieth century. Although Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect had been chosen as the norm of modern standard Chinese, it was not widespread until the second half of the twentieth century. The detailed process of unification and standardization of the Chinese national language is well addressed in the first part of Chen's book.
Many Chinese scholars prefer to use "dialect," rather than "language" to refer to Southern Min, Hakka, Cantonese, and other Han languages. In Chen's book, he also uses the term dialect even though he admits that these dialects are mutually unintelligible. Thus, the term dialect may mislead the readers about the complexity of languages in China. In addition, Chen does not mention any ethnic minority reactions to the promotion of Mandarin. It seems that the book was written from the Han people's perspective rather than a broader national perspective. I am wondering how many of the ethnic minorities recognize Mandarin as the national language and how many of them recognize themselves as members of the Chinese nation. In the case of Taiwan, Chen fails to explain why Mandarin was more successfully promoted in Taiwan than in China. As a matter of fact, the reason that Mandarin was well promoted and it received the national status in Taiwan is because of the Chinese KMT's colonial policy, rather than local people's "enthusiasm" (p.31). When the Chinese KMT took over Taiwan in 1945, most local people identified themselves as Taiwanese rather than Chinese. This situation forced the Chinese KMT to adopt a severe policy of assimilation, i.e. to convert the Taiwanese into the Chinese people through the monolingual policy and Chinese education in the national education system.
Modern written Chinese is the theme of the second part of this book. This part includes three chapters: development and promotion of modern written Chinese, norms and variations of modern written Chinese, and dialect writing. Chen describes how baihua, the colloquial speech, gradually replaced wenyan, the classical literary language, and finally became the modern standard written Chinese. The wenyen writing style, which divorces from people's colloquial speech, had dominated in the Han cultural areas for two thousands years prior to the twentieth century. In China, wenyan was finally replaced by baihua, which is based on the daily speech of educated Mandarin speakers. Chen also analyzes the development of dialect writing, especially in the case of Southern Min writing in Taiwan. In China, people who spoke different dialects were unified by the wenyen writing. After wenyen was replaced, baihua, based on Mandarin speakers, substitutes for wenyen in unifying the "Chinese" people. Chen concludes that "the majority of the Chinese population, even in Taiwan, are not convinced that standardization of dialect writing and its widespread use will bring them greater benefits" (p.128).
Chen attributes the immature development of dialect writing to the public's judgment and decision on the costs and benefits. However, he was not aware if the public choose to develop dialect writing, the political assumption "uniformity is necessary for the unity of the country" had depressed the development of dialect writing. In fact, Mandarin writing, to non-Mandarin speakers, is just like wenyen to the baihua speakers. In other words, as Chen mentioned by himself, Mandarin writing is promoted at all non-Mandarin speakers' expense (p. 114).
The third part of Chen's book discusses the nature of modern Chinese writing. This part consists of five chapters: basic features of the Chinese writing system, simplification of the traditional writing system, phonetization of Chinese, use and reform of the Chinese writing system, and conclusion. Chen points out that two major strengths of the Chinese script:1) its capacity to differentiate homophonous morphemes, and 2) its versatility in bridging time and dialects. On the other hand, the difficulty of learning and use is the worst disadvantage of the Chinese script. For example, a college-educated Chinese know between 3,500-4,000 characters (Norman1988:73). These characters account for only part of the Hanzi inventory, i.e. a total of 56,000 characters collected in the Xiandai Hanyu Da Zidian, the Modern Chinese Dictionary. Owing to the disadvantages of the characters, simplification and phonetization have been proposed to improve the Chinese writing system. Although simplified characters have been the official script for decades in China, the complex and the simplified characters are used in a mixed way on some occasions. As for the phonetization schemes, such as Bopomo and Pinyin, are employed only as a supplementary tool for learning Mandarin. The details of their developments are well described in this part of the book.
Chen points out that differentiating homophonous morphemes is a strength of Han character (in Chen's words, Chinese script). In fact, not only Han character can differentiate homophonous morphemes, but also the phonetization. For example, Kho-kun is proposed by Tan Kheng-Chiu as a system to write Taiwanese. Basically, Tan defines 60 categories with 60 simple symbols to refer to different semantic categories of words. He adds a symbol to each romanized Taiwanese word, so readers can distinguish the different meaning from the same pronunciation of the words. Regarding Han characters, as DeFrancis writes "the inefficiency of the system stems precisely from its clumsy method of sound representation and the added complication of an even more clumsy system of semantic determinatives" (DeFrancis 1996:40). In Chen's opinion, versatility is another virtue of Han character. However, he seems to ignore that although readers may still recognize each individual character in an ancient text, the readers can hardly understand the whole meaning of the text. Chen is skeptical concerning the possibility of romanization, and gave the examples of Taiwan and Japan to show Han character can remain survival in the modern society. He does not mention, however, that Vietnamese, which used to use Han character, has converted Han into romanization for hundreds years. The pattern of writing reform in Asia is the same as Gelb mentioned in his famous book about the world's writing reforms, "in all cases it was the foreigners who were not afraid to break away from sacred traditions and were thus able to introduce reforms which led to new and revolutionary developments" (Gelb 1952:196). Gelb's observation also accounts for why orthographic reform in China is much more difficult than in Vietnam, Korea, or Japan.
In short, this book contains rich references with regard to the development of modern standard Chinese. Although Chen's interpretation and analysis may not satisfy all readers, it is still a good introductory text on the development of the national language in China.
References: DeFrancis, John. 1996. How efficient is the Chinese writing system? Visible Language. Vol.30, No.1, p.6-44. Gelb, I. J. 1952. A Study of Writing. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Norman, Jerry. 1988. Chinese. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wi-vun Taiffalo Chiung is currently a doctoral student at the University of Texas at Arlington. His study areas are sociolinguistics and eco-linguistics. His current research interest is language and orthographic reform in Hanzi cultural sphere, such as Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and China.
*** Taiffalo's Eco-linguistics of Society **** * * * http://ling.uta.edu/~taiffalo * * Book Review: A Survey of Linguistic TheoriesEdmondson, J.A. & Burquest, D.A. (1998) A Survey of Linguistic Theories (3rd edition). Summer Institute of Linguistics, Dallas, 259p.
Reviewed by Emmanuelle Labeau
"A Survey of Linguistic Theories" aims at students in linguistics and is intended as a complement to the course the authors have been teaching at the University of Texas in Arlington. It provides an introduction to various linguistic theories and has no claim of exhaustivity. The volume is made of nine chapters: one introductory chapter and eight descriptions of (groups of) linguistic models.
In their initial " Linguistic Theorizing", the authors first fix the limits of their work by defining the concept of "survey" and underlining its limitations. They use the work "survey" as in land measurement which implies giving the boundaries, the area and the elevation (in other words the prominent aspects) of each studied theory. Their aim is to offer a comparative approach. They go on with a general reflection on the development of empirical scientific research and "A brief history of the axiomatization of mathematics" that they see as very influential on system linguistics. They then focus more directly on linguistics by sketching Chomsky's definition of a grammar before asking the questions of the nature of linguistics (is it a verbal, a social or a human science?) and of the unity of verbal and non verbal behaviour. The chapter closes on a brief exposition of what formal and functional models are, the previous being concerned with strings correct formation, the latest emphasising the communicative functions of language.
The rest of the book presents the following linguistic theories or trends: (1) Chomsky's Aspects Model, (2) Tagmenics as illustrated in the Pikes and Longacre's works, (3) Stratificational Linguistics mostly based on Lamb's approach. Then (4) The Great G(enerative) T(ransformational) G(rammar) Schism presents alterations from Aspects Model in two main trends: development of Chomsky's ideas as in the Extended Standard Theory, the Revised Extended Standard Theory and finally Government and Binding on one hand and Generative Semantics on the other hand. The remaining chapters include: (5) Lexical-Functional Grammar based on Bresnan's studies, (6) Montague Grammar and Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, (7) Relational Grammar and (8) Functional Models of Grammar separated in three trends: the first being illustrated by Givon's Functional Typological Grammar and Hopper's notion of Emergent Grammar, the second by Brown and Gilman and the third by an overview of iconicity in linguistics discussion. The order is not purely chronological and is partly articulated on Chomsky's inputs and influences on other linguists. The chapters share some features: a short introduction where the main representative linguist(s) is/are quoted, a general presentation of the theory including ontology, methodology and worldview and a section on the problem-solving capacity of the theory. In some cases, a specific aspect of the theory is further developed (eg. The Affix-Hopping transformation in chapter 2); in other cases, different trends of the general theory are further discussed (like Lamb's Outline Model or Fleming's Communication Analysis for Stratificational Linguistics. Each chapter (except 5 where specific distinct developments are listed) closes on a "theorizing" note where the main characteristics like levels or primitive symbols are recapitulated.
The book also contains useful appendices: (1) an Abbreviations and Symbols List that explains the most common abbreviations used in the book, (2) an index of the most important linguistic concepts and (3) 10 pages of selected references.
Edmondon and Burquest have managed to make the book accessible in different ways. First of all, the language used is relatively simple and avoids recourse to undefined notions. The book is generally easily readable despite the many abbreviations imposed by the theories. As far as the book organisation is concerned, the sections are fairly short and manageable. There is an obvious attempt at homogeneity: the chapters present the same basic sections, illustrations of the same examples are used in several chapters (eg. the treatment of the auxiliaries in English) and there are frequent cross-references to treatments and concepts of previously presented theories. There are however a few structural weaknesses. First, a certain inconsistency appears among the chapters as some develop an individual's theory (eg. Aspects Model), other present several individual's theories (eg. Pike and Longacre for Tagmenics) and still other present several theories sharing some common features (eg. Theta Theory, X-Bar Theory, Case Theory, Binding Theory,\202 in "the Great GTG Schism"). It is therefore not clear what the authors call a "linguistic theory".
A second structural problem concerns the 'theorizing' section concluding each chapter. When the chapter has presented several models, the 'theorizing' sometimes summarizes only one (eg. Pike's for Tagmenics, Lamb's for Stratificational Linguistics, Principle and Parameters Theory for the Great GTG Schism) which could lead to confusions. A summary of general features would probably be expected. Finally, one can regret that the references are given in a block at the end of the book: it would be extremely useful to add a list of references at the end of each chapter listing the reference works (they are sometimes given in the introduction of the chapter but not systematically) as well as other presentations or analyses. This would facilitate the use for students and scholars wishing to deepen their knowledge of a given point.
The authors carefully set the limits of their work in their introductory chapter and there is no claim of comprehensiveness. In their Preface, they state: \171It is not intended to be a comprehensive account of everything that is happening in linguistics today but rather a sample of the more popular approaches to linguistic theorizing" (p.xi). The choice could be questioned: is "popularity" meant as international diffusion, scholars' preferences, adoption in applied linguistics? Also what are the grounds on which the "sample" has been chosen? These questions find no answer in the book. Another feature of the book is the clearly Anglo-Saxon focus although it must be said that there is an effort to use examples from other languages than English (Italian, German, Amis, Choctaw); this is also reflected in the choice of discussed linguistic phenomena. As for the choice of theories and linguists, Chomsky comes first as he is mentioned in 3 chapters (1, 2 and 5) -- understandable given his influence on the discipline.
To conclude "A Survey of Linguistic Theories" is a clearly written book that manages to make accessible various theories in a very limited number of pages. Its input could however be more valuable if the choice of models was better justified and if references to other more specialized studies were readily made available to the reader.
Emmanuelle Labeau teaches French in the School of Languages and European Studies of Aston University (Birmingham, Great Britain). Her research interests include French past tenses, evolution of French and French in Belgium.
Emmanuelle Labeau Teaching Fellow School of Languages and European Studies Aston University Aston Triangle Birmingham B4 7ET
Book Review:Western Linguistics. An Historical IntroductionPieter A.M. Seuren, 1998, "Western Linguistics. An Historical Introduction", Blackwell Publishers Oxford, UK,570pp. reviewed by Laura and Radu Daniliuc
Lecturer in Linguistics at both Cambridge and Oxford, then Professor of Philosophy of Language and of Theoretical Linguistics at Nijmegen University, Pieter A.M. Seuren brings before readers kin on the science of language an impressive history of Western linguistic thought ranging from Greek Antiquity up to the twentieth century. In an epoch with such a great diversity of theories, modern linguists have, unfortunately, forgotten their predecessors and, more than that, the role that those predecessors played in the progress of the linguistic science. In spite of a number of books presenting in detail the history of linguistics, the questions in vogue nowadays are not shown as having a direct continuation of those formulated a long time ago, some of them in the fifth century BC. Seuren's book is a linguistics history of linguistics, written from the point of view of a linguist preoccupied with the current issues as well as with their trace back into the history.
The point of departure is expressed by Seuren through the question 'If linguistics is justified in claiming the status of a real science, when and how did the application of scientific methodology came about, and what mistakes have been made in this respect?' Therefore, his aim is the evolution of scientific methodology during the ages as well as its errors and their influence on linguistics theory. Baring this explicit purpose in mind, Seuren organizes his book in two parts: the first offers a diachronic approach on what is generally considered to be linguistics proper, with a focus on the study of grammar, while the second deals with meaning also from a diachronic perspective. It should be added that from Antiquity till the 19th century grammar and meaning formed a whole, while in our century the have split into separate entities. Seuren aims at bringing them together, though this is rather difficult, since grammar and meaning have developed different ways of thinking, standards and perspectives.
Nevertheless, Seuren had the courage to undertake this thorny task (although it cost him a ' life time of teaching, reading and thinking') and he begins his exploration of the history of linguistics with Plato's dialogue 'Cratylus', the earliest document, in Western world, of linguistic analysis. Aware of the fact that linguistic history cannot be treated in detail in a single volume, Seuren highlights the main concepts and analytical instruments characteristic for every period of linguistic evolution. For Antiquity, he pays special attention to the distinction between 'word-linguistics' and 'sentence-linguistics', and between 'underlying semantic form' and 'surface structure'. He also emphasizes the paramount influence of the Aristotelian theory of truth on the development of modern model-theoretic formal semantics and not only. In discussing the two schools emerging in Antiquity, anomalism and analogism, Seuren concentrates on the opposition between 'ecologism' and 'formalism' as different methods in dealing with the fact of language. As representatives of late Antiquity, Seuren mentions the name of Apollonius Dyscolus, Donatus and Priscian; and as far as the middle ages are concerned, Seuren considers it necessary to talk about Speculative Grammar, an attempt to establish a relation of regularity between the ontological and the metaphysical categories. From the renaissance linguistic period, which abounded in actual descriptive grammars, Seuren has chosen three main figures: the English Linacre, the Italian Scaliger and the Spaniard Sanctius. Then he concentrates on the powerful Port Royal tradition, based in fact on Sanctius' ideas.
The next chapter takes the reader into the 18th and 19th centuries which are known as 'the modern period' and during which the study of language form and that of meaning became separate matters. Beside the more philosophically oriented developments that flourished in the 18th century, Seuren touches upon the linguistic achievements that took place during the Enlightenment. He mentions the first systematic attempts at compiling large dictionaries of the languages of culture, the romanticist interest developed in exotic languages, and the expansion of grammar in 18th century France, whose representatives ( Vaugelas, Desmarais, Buffier, Dumarsais, Girard, Beauzee), neglected by historians, Seuren argues, continued the Port Royal tradition. A major topic of the 19th century was the origin of language, which produced speculative theories that gave birth later to historical comparative philology, a sudden and extremely important change toward empirically testable theories. Another aspect of the period is the profound interest in mental phenomena, illustrated by the two opposing schools of thought, 'associationism' and 'volitionism', as well as by the German Humboldt. Around 1840 began the subject-predicate debate, which was to last for almost a century, till, roughly, the 1930s, when Ogden & Richards drew the famous emiotic triangle.
All this evolution culminated in the 20th century, which, Seuren appreciates, has seen more linguistic studies carried out than all preceding centuries taken together. The main characteristic of theoretical linguistics is shown to be the desire to become a real autonomous science. Its central theme is the search for empirical access to language and its leading force is considered the concept of structuralism. In order to avoid an expeditious treatment of the subject, Seuren discusses separately Europe and America in the 20th century. As far as Europe is concerned, Seuren presents the two key figures of early European structuralism, Baudouin de Courtenay and Ferdinand de Saussure, and he emphasizes the importance of Saussure's 'Course' as the standard work of linguistic theory in Europe during the years after the first world war, and its influence on the European linguistic schools that flourished between the wars, especially in Prague, Copenhagen and London. Their contribution to phonology is particularly notable, as it has proved of lasting value. In the same period the study of language in the New World was partly indigenous, partly inspired by the ideas coming from Europe. The key figures presented by Seuren are Bloomfield, whose ideas are largely discussed, Zellig S. Harris, the 'father' of generative and transformational grammar and Noam Chomsky, considered by Seuren as 'a metalinguist rather than a linguist'. The importance of transformational grammar, the author points out, lies in its general deepening of methodological insights. Seuren did not intend to present a detailed version of the theoretical proposals made by the Chomskyan school, which would have been useless and inappropriate, nevertheless he looks with a critical eye at some of its methodological aspects, especially at Chomsky's 1995 statement according to which there is really only one, abstract, language in the world, and that grammatical processes are, to a very large extent, lexicon-driven. The large chapter on the 20th century America ends with the view on linguistic typology or universalist linguistics, a branch inaugurated by Joseph H. Greenberg.
The second part of Seuren's book concentrates in third chapters on the history of the study of meaning and, implicitly, on the history and development of logic which has led to modern formal semantics. Seuren presents the evolution of predicate calculus from the Aristotelian Square of Oppositions and 19th century formalism to the theory of generalised quantifiers, arguing that modern predicate calculus is empirically relevant for natural language syntax and that natural language semantics is to be based on the cognitive, not the verbal, notion of truth. Modern semantics, Seuren appreciates, has been influenced by philosophy in two different ways. Firstly, under the influence of mathematically oriented thinking, it adopted the formalised versions of logic, giving birth to what is known as formal semantics. Secondly, the school of Ordinary Language Philosophy, which flourished at Oxford, demonstrated the inconvenients of the mathematically inspired developments in formal logic applied to the semantics of natural language and drew attention on the phenomena of anaphora, presupposition and speech acts which showed the inconsistency of the establish logical paragigm of model-theoretic formal semantics.
After these voyages into the history of grammatical and semantic studies, Seuren wants to identify and explain the issues that have been of all times and their evolution through the centuries. He talks about the meaningfulness of all linguistic structure until the 20th century, about the autonomy of linguistic structure after 1900 and about deep structure and analysis, which, opaque for many centuries, have got clarity and explicitness only nowadays. The author deals with the main streams of thinking throughout the history of western world, streams which have their origin in the Greek Antiquity whose major representatives, Plato and Aristotle, taught the world how to look at things. Seuren talks about the immanent generative power of their thinking which was to influence all the centuries that followed. The Platonists are said to possess a deeper insight into the nature of the issues involved and a relative incapacity to provide adequate formal analysis. The Aristotelians are characterised by great formal prowess based on adequate insight and coverage of facts. Linguistic history is known to be a continual succession of Platonists and Aristotelians. It is from this overall perspective that Seuren has chosen to present in the end of his book the evolution of grammatical and semantic studies and the relation between them through the centuries. He studies mainly the historical roots of current theories and their implication in the general linguistic context. It is crystal-clear for the reader of this book that its author is a convinced anti-Chomskian: he argues, based on Huck & Goldsmith's statements, that Chomsky's "unprofessional behaviour" has caused "great harm" to linguistics which is now "sociologically in a very unhealthy state". Seuren' s dramatic conclusion is that neither the discipline of linguistics, nor the community of linguists have achieved the degree of maturity one expects to find in a real science. Perhaps Seuren forgets the fact that we are living an age in which science is developing under our eyes and present-day linguistics is to be judged with other instruments than those applicable to historical linguistics. Chomsky is, fortunately or not, a linguist to be mentioned in every course on the history of linguistics, despite his personality as a human being. And 'An Introduction' should deal with important matters, not with trivia.
In conclusion, Seuren's book deserves a place among the valuable works on linguistics, a science that fights nowadays to preserve its unitary status menaced not by Chomsky, but by the more and more powerful interdisciplinarity. ____________________________ The reviewers - Laura and Radu Daniliuc - Suceava, ROMANIA - are BA in English Language (Linguistics) and Literature, members of SSA, authors of the first complete Romanian translation of F. de Saussure's "Courses" and of other articles on generativism and applied linguistics. Their main interests include: generativism (P&P theory, minimalist structures etc) and computational linguistics. [other info available on request] Book Review:Concise History of the Language Sciences: From theConcise History of the Language Sciences: From the Sumerians to the Cognitivists. Edited by E.F.K. Koerner and R.E. Asher. Oxford: Pergamon, 1995, xii, 497 pp. (Elsevier Science.) [ISBN 0-08-042580-1; $105, - hb.].
Reviewed by Brigitte Nerlich, University of Nottingham, UK bnpsyc.nott.ac.uk
This end of the 20th century is a good time to take stock of what has been done in the field of the language science and to assess in how far past insights can be used to rethink and inspire modern linguistic theories (the 'Seventh International Conference on the History of Linguistics' has just taken place in Oxford, 12-17 September, 1996). This 'Concise History' is a timely and a stimulating contribution to this debate. Up to now those interested in the history of the language sciences could choose either to sift through the information provided in various multi-volume histories of linguistics edited by Sylvain Auroux ('Histoire des idees linguistiques', Bruxelles: Mardaga, 1990ff, 2 vols. to date), Giulio C. Lepschy ('Storia della linguistica', Bologna: Il Mulino, 1991-1994, 3 vols.), and Peter Schmitter ('Geschichte der Sprachtheorie', Tubingen: Narr, 1987ff, 4 vols. to date, which includes a discussion of methodological questions) (see Editors' Foreword, p. xi), or to mix and match information contained in a long list of shorter volumes, which I shall enumerate in a little appendix. Now there is a third option available, which bridges the gap between the results of enormous teamwork efforts invested in the multi-volume projects and these more personal views of the history of linguistics.
The 'Concise History of the Language Sciences' (CHoLS) is also the product of teamwork, but shorter than any of the others, and therefore more accessible and affordable. This book brings together the (in some cases revised) historical overviews which originally appeared in 'The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics' (published in 10 volumes in 1994 by Pergamon Press, Oxford), for which E.F.K. Koerner was subject editor for the History of Linguistics, and R.E. Asher, Editor-in-Chief. One Chapter, on the Hebrew Linguistic Tradition (David Tene, pp.21-28), is entirely new. CHoLS overlaps in some parts with the obviously less grammatically and more philosophically oriented volume 'Sprachphilosophie Philosophy of Language La philosophie du langage', edited by Marcelo Dascal et al. (Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1992), and it replaces to some extend the 1975 'Historiography of Linguistics', edited by Thomas Sebeok as vol. 13 of 'Current Issues in Lingusitics' (The Hague: Mouton). CHoLS has been briefly reviewed by Peter Schmitter in 'Beitrage zur Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft' 6.1 (1996), 171-172. What distinguishes this history of linguistics from the up to now available shorter histories of linguistics is its almost global coverage. It goes well beyond the Eurocentric views that prevailed in some of the older historiographical accounts (it stays however somewhat Anglocentric as far as more contemporary linguistic traditions are concerned, as we shall see later on). And in giving more room to the 20th century, CHoLS supplements the multi-volume accounts mentioned above.
CHoLS has 12 sections. In section I Konrad Koerner provides a useful overview of the field of the 'history of linguistics' and a judicious account of the various approaches to writing this history which have been developed since the 1960s, that is, the 'historiography of linguistics' (pp.3-16). Sections II to V are devoted to Antiquity. Section II focuses on the Babylonian, the Hebrew, and the Arabic linguistic traditions; section III on the Chinese and Japanese linguistic tradition, and the history of East Asian phonetics; section IV on linguistic theories developed in India (Paninian linguistics, Indian theories of meaning, Ancient Indian Phonetics, and the Tamil linguistic tradition); section V on Europe's classical linguistic tradition (Plato, Aristotle, Dionysius Thrax, Varro, the Roman language science, Apollonius Dyscolus, and the Roman Ars Grammatica, including Priscian). Section VI is devoted to European medieval grammar and language philosophy (the non-European Middle Ages had also been covered in section II). Section VII deals with European Renaissance linguistics in Italy, Spain and France (Germany is only mentioned in the overview that leads into this section, Keith Percival, pp.147-151). Section VIII covers the 17th and 18th century in Europe with the Port-Royal tradition of general grammar, universal language schemes in Britain, early historical and comparative studies in Scandinavia, the Low Countries, and German-speaking countries, the beginnings of comparative and historical studies in Britain, the origin of language debate, and finally, the discovery of Sanskrit by Europeans. Section IX deals with the main strands of 19th century linguistics (historical and comparative linguistics and language classification). Section X delves into 20th century linguistics (Saussure, Geneva School, neolinguistics in Italy, Prague School, Glossematics, Firth, systemic linguistics, Guillaume, valency grammar, functional grammar, American structuralism, post-Bloomfieldian phonology, tagmemics, stratificational grammar, transformational grammar, generative semantics, applicational grammar, case grammar, cognitive grammar). Section XI is devoted to special applications of linguistics in phonetics and translation. The book is rounded off by extensive indexes of subjects and names (with life-dates) and a list of contributors.
Inevitably there are some gaps in this history, some of which have been pointed out by the editors (if space had permitted there could have been articles on early Tibetan grammarians, the Korean, Burmese and Old Javanese linguistic traditions and so on, cf. p. xi), some not. Any reader trying to find out more about the roots of certain branches of linguistics, such as traditional historical and more modern structural and cognitive semantics, semiotics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics or psycholinguistics, is left rather disappointed (Michel Breal and Antoine Meillet, to mention only two important French linguists of the late 19th and early 20th century, are only alluded to in the fine overview provided by John Joseph at the beginning of section X, pp.221-232). The section on the 19th century looks particularly meagre, compared to the amount that has been written about this century. There is nothing about the various philosophies of language developed during that century, not even about the most famous one of them, the philosophy of language developed in the circle surrounding Hamann, Herder, and Humboldt and their followers. And finally, and again inevitably, every reader will find their own special gaps in the 20th century section.
The contributions are all of a very high standard and written by specialists. To mention just a few names from the 20th century section alone: Rene Amacker writes about the Geneva School, Frank Palmer about Firthian linguistics, M.A.K. Halliday about systemic theory, Andre Martinet about functional grammar, James McCawley about generative semantics, and Ronald Langacker about cognitive grammar.
It is one of the great joys of reading this book to plunge into chapters that deal with remoter regions of the history of linguistics which are unfamiliar to the reader. The chapter devoted to the Arabic linguistic tradition (Yasir Suleiman, pp.28-38) and the one on Indian theories of meaning (Frits Staal, pp.66-71) were real eye openers to this reviewer. It is also a delight to find fresh, detailed and enlightening descriptions of already well charted territories, such as the linguistics developed in the later Middle Ages (Geoffrey Bursill-Hall, pp.130-136), and, even more so, of the history of comparative and of historical linguistics (both by N.E. Collinge, pp.195-212). However, this book should not only be read by those interested in the _history_ of the language sciences. The 20th century section in particular should be read by all those studying contemporary linguistics in order to grasp the _diversity_ of approaches that have been developed, that are currently being developed, and that still can be developed in the future. They should also look at and compare with each other the various European and non-European traditions of linguistics, because (and here I quote loosely from a review article by Jonathan Owens) 'the commonalities between those traditions and the modern ones arise from the systematic analysis of language itself by humans. Through their comparison we can discern what is common and essential in linguistic theory. We may be dealing with many different traditions, but we are dealing with only one theoretical object' ('Historiographia Linguistica' 22:3 [1995], p.438).
The volume has been edited very thoroughly (although one could be nit-picking and list a few names mentioned in the articles which do not occur in the index).
Appendix: Contemporary histories of linguistics (* = mentioned in Koerner's overview, pp.3-7)
Those interested in the history of linguistics can choose from *Hans Arens' pioneering 'Sprachwissenschaft' (Freiburg, Karl Albert, 1955), *Milka Ivic's 'Trends in Linguistics' (The Hague: Mouton, 1959), *Maurice Leroy's early 'Les grands courants de la linguistique moderne' (Univ. Press of Brussels, 1963), *Noam Chomsky's controversial but flood-gate-opening 'Cartesian Linguistics. A chapter in the history of rationalist thought' (New York, London: Harper & Row, 1966), *Robert H. Robins' traditional 'Short History of Linguistics' (London, Harlow: Longmans, 1st ed. 1967; 3rd ed. 1990), George Mounin's 'Histoire de la linguistique des origines au XXe siecle' (PUF, 1967), Gerhard Helbig's 'Geschichte der neueren Sprachwissenschaft' (Reinbeck: Rowohlt, 1970), Geoffrey Sampson's 'Schools of Linguistics. Competition and Evolution' (London, etc.: Hutchinson, 1980), T.A. Amirova et al.'s 'Abriss der Geschichte der Linguistik' (Leipzig: VEB Bibliographisches Institut, 1980), F.M. Beresin's 'Geschichte der sprachwissenschaftlichen Theorien' (Leipzig: Bibliographisches Institut, 1980), Olga Amsterdamska's more limited 'Schools of Thought. The development of linguistics from Bopp to Saussure' (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1987), *Bertil Malmber's more ambitious 'Histoire de la linguistique: Sumer a Saussure' (PUF, 1990), Roy Harris & Talbot T. Taylor's selective 'Landmarks in Linguistic Thought. The Western Tradition from Socrates to Saussure' (London: Routledge, 1989), and Esa Itkonen's idiosynchratic 'Universal History of Linguistics. India. China, Arabia, Europe' (Amsterdam, Philadelphia, 1991).
Reviewer:
Brigitte Nerlich is a Research Fellow at the Department of Psychology, University of Nottingham, UK. She has published books on the history of semantics and pragmatics: 'Semantic Theories in Europe, 1830-1930. From etymology to contextuality' (1992), and (with David D. Clarke) 'Language, Action, and Context. The early history of pragmatics, 1780-1930' (1996). Both Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
- ------------------------------------------------------------------ Dr Brigitte Nerlich, Department of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK; Phone 0115 951 5361 Ext 8341; FAX 0115 951 5324 email: bnpsyc.nott.ac.uk |
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